| The
most ancient sacred literature of Hinduism is called
the Vedas. This collection of hymns, poems, and
ceremonial formulas represent the beliefs of several
Aryan tribes. Initially the Vedas were considered so
sacred that they were only transmitted orally from one
generation of brâhmans to the next. The passages
of the Vedas were eventually written in Sanskrit, we
believe, near the end of the third century BC, and primarily
consist of four collections called the Rig-Veda, the
Sama-Veda, the Yajur-Veda, and the Atharva-Veda. Collectively,
these are referred to as the Samhitas.
The first three Samhitas were used in the Vedic period
by the priestly class as ritual handbooks. Containing
1,028 poetic hymns, the Rig-Veda was used by
the hotri who called on the gods by reciting the hymns
aloud. The hymns vary in style and length, and praise
a pantheon of gods. Although Indra, the god of war and
weather, is the most frequently mentioned, there appears
to be no hierarchy. Agni, the god of fire, is the second
most prominently mentioned deity.
The Sama-Veda consisted of various portions taken
from the Rig-Veda and were utilized by the udgatri chanters.
The Yajur-Vedas was used by the adhvaryu priests.
This work contains specific sacrificial formulas which
were recited during that form of ceremony.
The final Veda, the Atharva-Veda, is attributed
to a sage, or rishi, named Atharvan, and consists of
a number of hymns and magical incantations. Some scholars
believe that this scripture may have originated with
the original pre-Aryan culture of indigenous peoples,
and because it deviated form the other Vedas, it was
not at first readily accepted. Eventually it too was
adopted as a ritual handbook by the Brahmans, the higest
class of priests.
Although the Rig-Veda is still considered the most important
of these ancient texts, it was still never very popular.
Much of this comes from the fact of its composition
by and for a religious aristocracy. In contrast, the
Atharva-Veda, compiled perhaps as late as 500 BC, frequently
refers to many lesser functional gods considered useful
in the daily lives and simple rituals of the ordinary
Aryan that did not need the mediation of priests.
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| What
little we know of the Vedic Age comes from the Rig-Veda.
By the time the oral tradition of the Aryan religion
was comitted to Sanskrit, however, some of the gods
mentioned had already begun to lose their importance.
Nevertheless, The Rig-Veda represented a blend of beliefs
held by several Aryan tribes.
Each of the gods, of the Vedic Period, had a primary
function, or Vrata. Usually these functions were closely
connected to the forces of nature such as light, fire,
and heaven which in turn followed the cosmic order (rta)
of the universe. The demons of darkness and chaos, headquartered
under the earth, arrayed their power against the righteousness
of the gods. In this dualistic approach, the demons
sought to disrupt the system of nature, therefore practicing
anrta. During a later period, rta gave way to the concept
of dharma, which could be translated as "virtue."
Although the deities of the Rig-Veda are not organized
hierarchically, each could, in its own right, be looked
upon as the supreme god. Nevertheless, Indra, the god
of war and weather, receives the most attention in the
ancient Vedic text, and is frequently referred to as
the eka deva, or "one god." According to the
Rig-Veda (6.7), creation began once Indra slew Vritra,
the serpent demon, who had locked up the waters necessary
for human existence in mountain caves. With the waters
now released, he then placed the sun in the sky thus
establishing the cosmic order (rta) under the god Varuna.
Varuna,
then, sits in the palace of heaven and oversees the
world below. As the guardian of the moral order, both
earthly and cosmic, Varuna punishes the sinner with
disease, or for all time by condemning them to the House
of Clay following death. Aryans who practiced right
deeds, or performed the proper ritual would forever
celebrate happiness after death. Varuna is aided in
his efforts by many spies who fly through the cosmos
at his command.
Less important than Indra, but still held in high regard
among the numerous deities of the Aryan religion, was
Agni, the fire god. Agni descends from the darkened
clouds as lightning, shines on the world as the sun,
and manifests in the flame of the sacrifice. Through
the sacrificial offering, Agni served as the intermediary
between the gods and man, and the correct performance
of this important ritual could beneficially reward the
devotee. Rituals based on the fire sacrifice could be
as personal as dumping clarified butter in the family
hearth, to the production of soma juice. As part of
the sacrificial ritual, parts of the soma plant were
pressed between stones, mixed with milk, and filtered
through a sheepskin. An hallucinogen, soma consumed
during sacrifices supposedly produced a sense of superhuman
strength and visions of the gods. Soma would later become
the moon god.
The cosmic order of the Aryan universe remained fairly
simple. The heavens served as the residence of the major
gods and the souls of the righteous. The region between
heaven and earth was called the antariksa. This region,
where the birds flew and the clouds crossed the sky,
was also home to the demigods. Below the earth, in the
darkness of the House of Clay, dwelled the spirits of
the unrighteousness and the demons that sought to disrupt
rta. The concept of birth and rebirth had not yet become
part of the Indian cosmology that would later be indicative
of all Indian religion.
Religion during the Vedic Age revolved around the sacrifice.
Within the home, the patriarch of the family daily sacrificed
at the domestic hearth while the brahmans performed
great rituals slaughtering numerous animals to the gods.
In each case, the idea was to communicate with the gods
who would descend from the heavens granting the devotees
health, happiness, and success. Over time, these rituals
became so complex that the brahmans, who knew the correct
ritual, became indispensable.
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